Paquiquineo
Pacquiquineo belonged to the Paspahegh tribe located where the Jamestown fort was built. In 1561, he was a young boy when the Spanish captured him, took him aboard their ship that was exploring the coast of North America, and brought him to Madrid. He was no ordinary Indian. According to a recent book review by Álvaro Enrigue (New York Review of Books, 18 January 2024), as the son of a chief, the ship’s captain believed him to be especially suited to Spanish plans to conquer the region.
Contribution as Translator
As it turned out he proved to be especially dexterous with languages, making him invaluable as a translator. Upon meeting King Philip II, he demonstrated his independence by spurning the King’s offer to serve as a mediator or adopt its religion. Ironically, after the Spanish transported him to Mexico, he became seriously ill. He asked to be baptized, “just in case” he might not survive. He was renamed Don Luís de Velasco after a New Spain (present day Mexico) viceroy.
Pacquiquineo’s extraordinary talents and subsequent history explodes numerous myths and stereotypes (see Enrigue’s review) of indigenous people and their role in the discovery of Europe and the Americas. He epitomizes the real presence and efficacy of the Algonquian Exchange.
Prevention of Early Spanish Control of North America
He convalesced in a Dominica monastery and then witnessed a competition among monastic orders of Dominicans, Franciscans, and Jesuits to gain religious control of unexplored lands in North America. While this struggle played out, Paquiquineo took the opportunity to learn Nahuatl, the language of the Meixica cum Aztecs. The Spanish sent him to Cuba where he stayed for four years. The Jesuits sent him on a Jesuit mission to Virginia to serve as their official translator.
In Virginia, he helped establish a Spanish mission along the Powhatan (now James) River. In 1571, after the Spanish soldiers left, Pacquiquineo led a revolt, killing the remaining Jesuit priests and disappearing, likely into Paspahegh tribal safety.
Strange Disappearance of Pacquiquineo
Rumors have long abounded about his whereabouts and identity, some suggesting unrealistically that he was really Opechancanough. More likely he melted into his Native tribe or perhaps reemerged as Chief Wowinchopunk of the Paspahegh. In 1611, after the Paspahegh refused to supply corn from their limited stores, the English settlers burned their town and cornfields and murdered the men, women, and children. The Paspahegh were never heard from again.
Wahunsenacah (Powhatan)
Chief Wahunsenacah, also known as Powhatan, created a chieftancy said to number about 31 tribes by 1607. He inherited six tribes and got the rest by invitation or coercion. He exacted a tribute from each tribe in the forms of corn, deer, shells, and other commodities and redistributed it for trade, rewards, emergencies, and ceremonial display. No evidence exists of his age. The best estimates likely date his birth in the 1540s. He died in 1618, a year after the death of his daughter Pocahontas.
Source of Knowledge About Chief Wahunsenacah
Much of what is known about him comes from English sources with obvious biases. Captain John Smith had many contacts with the chief, his daughter, and his tribal associates. He left valuable accounts of his experiences in his general history of Virginia. When Smith’s account is read carefully together with other English accounts and the assembled testimony is placed within the context of early seventeenth century political and economic realities of invasion and conquest, a reasonable profile of Chief Wahunsenacah can be drawn.
Chief Wahunsenacah and Captain John Smith Misunderstand One Another
In the first contact (1607) with Smith, Wahunsenacah makes his position clear. Read this account of an exchange between the Chief and Smith very carefully because it lays bare the very different understandings of the two figures. Both men were wrong about each other, yet they operated on their false assumptions with devastating results.
Wahunsenacah wanted the benefits of trade with the English and erroneously believed he could bring the invaders into his paramount chieftaincy. Historians now believe the famous incident of Smith being saved by Pocahontas was actually a ritually staged attempt of Wahunsenacah to bring the English into his chieftancy. The chief offered to locate Smith at the town of Capahowasick, just south of his capital at Werwowocomoco. For his part, Smith underestimated the chief and assumed he could force him to supply the settlers’ needs. Both men acted on these false assumptions with devastating results.
What Did Chief Wahunsenacah Really Know?
Circumstantial evidence reveals that Wahunsenacah knew a lot about what was going on. For example, he was aware of the English attempt to found the Roanoke Colony settlement off the Outer Banks of what is now North Carolina. Rumors that some of these settlers had made contact with the Chesapeake Tribe led Wahunsenacah to destroy the tribe. He also knew he could not trust invaders, after Smith lied to him on their first meeting. When the chief asked Smith why he had come and what were his plans, Smith replied that his ship had broken down and his stay was temporary. However, the Paspahegh had already informed the Chief that they had built a military fort in his territory at what became Jamestown.
Role of Spirituality in Chief Wahunsenacah’s Life
Besides inheritance, much of Wahunsenacah’s power and charisma emanated from the recognition of his spiritual qualities. Scholars know little about how he acquired these shamanistic or priestly gifts, but his people also called him Mamanatowick, meaning “great king.” He was their spiritual lord. Mamanatowick was a title of great respect.
The Huskanaw as a Coming of Age Ceremony
It is likely he derived his leadership recognition from his performance in a childhood coming of age ceremony known as the huskanaw. The Algonquians released young boys, ten to fifteen years of age, into the woods. After three days of celebration, they spent nine months in isolation during which they had to survive on their own. During this period, they would acquire new identities as hunters, warriors, craftsmen, prophets, or spiritual leaders.
Amonute, Matoaka, Pocahontas, and Rebecca
Pocahontas’ contribution to the Jamestown story cannot be overestimated. When the English settlers arrived in 1607, she was about eleven years of age. English chroniclers describe her doing cartwheels in the fort. Amonute was her secret name, likely known mostly inside the Algonquian community. Matoaka was another more public name and Pocahontas was a more common appellation among the English. She was given the Christian name Rebecca after baptism in 1614. The book of Genesis tells the story of Rebecca as the woman Abraham asked his servant to arrange to marry his son Issac.
Pocahontas’ Role
Both the English and the Algonquians used go betweens in dealing with one another. English boys like Thomas Savage, a 13 year-old who arrived in 1608, Henry Spelman, a 14 year-old who arrived the next year, and Robert Poole who arrived in 1611 with his father had similar functions as Pocahontas, namely to work in between two cultures doing what adults asked of them in order to satisfy whatever goals their leaders hoped to achieve. Thomas Savage was given to Wahunsenacah . Similarly, Namontack, an Algonquian boy was a given to Christopher Newport. Henry Spelman moved back and forth between the two groups for about eighteen months, serving as interpreter, messenger, or trade broker. Pocahontas had early contact with these English boys as she acted in similar ways.
Pocahontas and Her Contributions
Pocahontas was gifted with intelligence, beauty, and a remarkable ability to retain her independence while serving the competing needs of two different cultures. A summary of her brief life includes these major incidents:
- marriage to Kocoum, arranged by Wahunsenacah
- captured on the Potomac River and held as hostage by the English
- becomes irate when her father does not bargain for her release
- informs John Smith about a planned attack on Jamestown
- marries John Rolfe
- together with husband John Rolfe, she helps the English grow tobacco
- gives birth to Thomas Rolfe
- travels to London, England
- received as royalty by Bishop of London and attends a Christmas masque
- has a brief encounter with John Smith and expresses anger at his failure to acknowledge the goodwill of Powhatan towards him
- sits for a portrait in London by artist Simon van der Passe
- becomes ill on way home, dies, and buried at Gravesend, just outside London
